Data communication between computers has become a standard part of worldwide networks in many areas of endeavors. These individual networks gather data about diverse subjects and exchange information of common interest among various media groups. Most of these networks are independent communication entities that are established to serve the needs of a particular group. Some use high speed connections while others use slow speed networks. Some use one type of protocol while others use a different type of protocol. Other well-known differences between networks also exist. There has been considerable effort expended in an attempt to make it possible to interconnect disparate physical networks and make them function as a coordinated unit.
Whether they provide connections between one computer and another or between terminals and computers, communication networks are divided basically into circuit-switched or packet-switched types. Circuit-switched networks operate by forming a dedicated connection between two points. Such a dedicated circuit could be represented by a telephone connected through a circuit from the originating phone to a local switching, office, across trunk lines to a remote switching office and finally to the destination telephone. When that circuit is complete, no other communications can travel over the wires that form the circuit. The advantage of such circuit lies in the fact that once it is established, no other network activity will decrease the capacity of the circuit. The disadvantage is that concurrent communication cannot take place on the line or circuit.
Packet-switched networks take an entirely different approach. In such system, traffic on the network is divided into small segments of information called packets that are multiplexed on high capacity intermachine connections. Each packet carries identification that enables other units on the network to know whether they are to receive the data or are to transmit it to another destination. The chief advantage of packet-switching is that multiple communications among information sources such as computers can proceed concurrently with connections between machines being shared by all machines that are communicating. The disadvantage is that as activity increases, a given pair of communicating devices can use less of the network capacity.
A new technology has been developed that is called Internet and it accommodates information or communication networks having multiple, diverse underlying hardware technologies, or physical media protocols, by adding both physical connections and a new set of conventions. One of the problems with the use of Internet is that addresses refer to connections and not to the device itself that is sending the information. Thus, if a communication source, such as an aircraft for example, moves from one communication network to another, its Internet address must change. Specifically, if an aircraft is transmitting a particular location address code in one communication network in the Internet system and it moves to another, its Internet address must change. It is similar to a traveler who has a personal computer operating with a first communication network. If the computer is taken on a trip and connected into the information system after reaching the new destination, a new location address for the computer must be obtained for the new destination. It is also similar to moving a telephone from one location to another. A new telephone number must be assigned to the telephone at the new location. The telephone cannot be reached at the new location with the old number. Further, when routing a signal from one station to another through a plurality of nodes forming multipath connections, the message format contains a destination location address that is used to make the routing decisions. When the system has multiple addresses, the route taken by the packets traveling to a particular station address depends upon the location code embedded in the station address.
Thus, two problems occur in such message communication networks. The first is the requirement to change the address code of the communication source when it is at different locations in the network and the second is routing the message to the receiver if the address has changed. It can be seen, then, that with the presently existing system, if host A transmits a message to host B with a specific location code, by the time the message arrives at that location, host B may have moved to a new information processing network and changed its location code to conform to the new system and thus could not receive the message transmitted by host A. Host A must know that host B has entered the new information processing system and then must change the format of the new location address in order to contact host B.
The present system overcomes the disadvantages of the prior art by simply assigning a fixed, unique and unchanging identification code to both host A and host B. As host B enters into a new network access system, it transmits its identification code to the nearest node and all of the nodes interconnecting all of the disparate networks each store, with the unique identification code of host B, the address of those nodes which can communicate with host B so that a path can be completed through the nodes between host A and host B.
In the prior art, hierarchical logical routing is used to address highly mobile end-systems (computers on ships and aircraft, etc.) that are simultaneously connected to multiple communication paths and employ multicast message traffic. Hierarchical routing schemes have great difficulty solving this combined set of problems and a new approach must be used to overcome the difficulties in using hierarchical routing to meet the user's diverse requirements.
Further, in the prior art, a logical network address of larger than 32 bits was too large to be used as a directory access method to locate a receiver at a location address specified in the message format. Specialized hierarchical address structures which embed network location information have been employed to reduce the size of the access index to the routing table and also to reduce the size of the routing table. This approach couples the address structure to the Internet routing software design.
There are various “hidden assumptions” of hierarchical addressing. These “hidden assumptions” are (1) the processing load of the router CPU increases as the size of the routing table increases and (2) computer memory is a scarce and expensive resource. The present invention overcomes the first of these problems while computer memory technology has addressed the second problem by making very large memories cost effective.
Traditional approaches for designing a network address structure have either been intimately entwined in the design of efficient routing look-up tables or assigned by a central authority such as ARPANET. Neither of these approaches gives much if any thought to the needs, desires or ease of use of the group which must make operational use of the system. In an age of fourth generation database languages and high level compilers, network addresses are basically hand-coded in low level language. Addresses and address structures are difficult to change as a mobile end-unit moves from one communication network to another. Experts are often required to ensure that operational equipment is properly integrated into the system. ISO (International Standards Organization) addressing provides a basis for a much better approach but the overall design and administration of a network addressing structure must be elevated to an easily supported, user friendly, distributed architecture to effectively support the user's long-term needs.
Traditional directory access methods, whether for Internet routing, databases or compiler symbol tables, fall into three basic categories:
(1) Sorted Tables. The keys are sorted by some rule which allows a particular search strategy (e.g., binary search) to locate the key. Associated with the key location is a pointer to the data.
(2) Tree Structures. Parts of the key field are used to traverse a tree data structure to a leaf node which holds the data or a pointer to the data.
(3) Hashing. Some arithmetic function is applied to the key which compresses the key field into a chosen integer range which is the initial directory size. This integer is the index into the directory which usually contains a pointer to the data.
Each of these techniques has advantages and disadvantages when applied to the Internet routing table access design. Sorted tables provide the potentially most compact storage utilization at the cost of having access computations which grow with the number of addresses (keys) active in the system. Computations for sorted tables grow proportional to the log of the number of keys plus one. Using sorted tables, the router processing will slow down as the number of active addresses increases. But the desirable result is to make computation independent of the number of active addresses. It has been theorized, without providing a method, that a scheme to access sorted tables could exist which always allows access in two probes. To date, no methods have been proposed which approaches this theoretical result.
Tree data structures have been widely employed for directories, particularly for file systems, such as the UNIX file system where larger amounts of auxiliary disc storage is being managed. Trees offer access times that are proportional to the length of the address (key). Trees trade off memory space for processing load. More branches at each level decreases the processing but uses much more memory. For example, a binary tree uses two locations at each level for each bit in the address field for which there is an active address. The binary tree processing of an eight bit octet requires eight memory accesses as well as unpacking the bits from the octet. On the other hand, processing a 256 way tree takes one memory access using the address octet as an index at each level. A 256 way tree requires 256 locations at the next level for every different octet active (a valid value) at the current level. An address of six octets with ten valid octet values in each octet position would require 256×106 (256 million) locations, rapidly reaching an unrealizable size on current computer equipment. With current realizable computer memory sizes, pure tree structures do not appear to offer a viable structure for real time, address independent directory access method.
Hashing has often been used over the last several decades to create directories where fast access is desired. One system uses a multi-level hashing scheme as the file system directory structure. The Total database system is based on hashed key access. Many language compilers use hash tables to store symbols. Hash table schemes have good average access costs—often a single access, but can degrade drastically when the table becomes too full or the hashing function does not perform a good job of evenly distributing the keys across the table. Some techniques called “linear hashing” and “dynamic hashing” have provided the method of expanding the hash table when a particular bucket becomes too full instead of using the traditional linked list overflow methods. These techniques generally require about 40% more space than the number of active addresses (keys) to achieve single access speed without employing overflow methods.
All general hashing techniques use a variation of several common randomizing functions (such as dividing the key by a prime number and using the remainder) to “compress” the key field into a much smaller integer index into the hash table. Hashing functions have traditionally been viewed as one-way, randomized mapping of the key set into the hash space. The index computed by the hashing function could not be used to reconstruct the key. If for a particular hash function there exists a reciprocal function which maps the index to the unique key which generated the index, then the compressed keys could be stored in the directory.
The present invention overcomes the disadvantages of the prior art by considering a flat, as opposed to hierarchical, logical routing address space with unique identifiers assigned to each transmitter and receiver to vastly simplify the modern communication problems of addressing highly mobile end-systems which are simultaneously connected to multiple communication paths and employ multicast message traffic.
Further, the present invention employs a reversible arithmetic code compression technique to reduce the logical network address of up to 128 bits to a unique integer value which preserves any hierarchical ordering of the network address.
Also, the present invention employs dynamic hashing and memory allocation techniques to automatically adjust the size of the routing table directory and routing records to accommodate the number of end-system addresses currently active in the communication system. These techniques provide a selection of approaches to allow graceful degradation of the routing efficiency when the memory available for routing tables is full.
Finally, the system improves over the prior art by using a message format that is structure independent of the location of the destination of the message receiver.
Arithmetic coding, when applied to addresses as known length keys, provides several advantages for table look-up when the addresses are known or can be learned in advance as they are in communications applications. The proposed arithmetic coding routing table design provides direct support for mobile, multi-homed, shared network end-systems employing multicast and unicast messaging while minimizing the effects of the “hidden assumptions” that have lead to reducing the routing table size by embracing hierarchical routing schemes.
First, the identification encoding parameter tables are easily constructed by counting the occurrence of a particular symbol value and the accumulative distribution over all octet occurrences. That is, the tables are scaled to the statistical occurrence of each octet value. When a “bucket” overflows, dynamic hashing approaches can be used to expand the directory or parameter tables.
Secondly, arithmetic coding can be constructed to operate on each symbol position in the address field as it arrives, allowing processing to begin as soon as the first address symbol arrives.
Thirdly, arithmetic coding preserves the hierarchical (left to right precedence) of the ISO addresses being encoded. This is desirable if an Internet router only has knowledge of the network address but the Internet header carries the full destination address of a succeeding system node.
Finally, a constant known set of computations is required for each symbol of the address field independent of the number of address symbols or the number of active Internet addresses.
These features make the arithmetic coding used herein an ideal candidate for the routing table directory structure that is independent of a location address in a router, gate way or end-system.
The present invention provides a very fast, automatically expandable, source filtered Internet routing scheme totally independent of the internal logical or physical structure of the network addresses in the message format that it is routing. Addresses are just unique identification numbers represented by a string of symbols of known length. Each Internet router learns the location of these numbers within the network from the Internet protocol traffic, from the source addresses of the packets it receives, and from a network management protocol.
Address independent routing tables provides the following direct benefits:
They provide a very fast routing table access scheme that is capable of supporting fast packet switch designs for very high speed media such as FDDI (i.e., routers which begin the outbound transmission of the packet as soon as possible after receiving the Internet header and before the whole packet has been received).
They allow source address filtering for efficient multicast operation and security partitioning of the network.
They allow independent automatic generation of network addresses from a user name space by a network name service. This facilitates using the same Internet software in disconnected networks with different addressing authorities and different address structures.
They allow for orderly expansion, restructuring and redesign of the user name space without changing the Internet code or table structure.
They reduce initial system procurement and logistic support costs because no special coding is needed for different networks.
They reduce life cycle system costs because the Internet routers automatically adapt to network changes and they can be expanded without routing table modification.
The present invention combines arithmetic coding with dynamic hashing to provide a very high speed method and system for detecting the 48 bit physical addresses in a Media Access Controller (MAC). The present system guarantees the acceptance or rejection of a frame. This technique always performs address detection functions within the transmission time of the address field plus a small fixed number of octet clocks depending on the logic implementation chosen. Specifically, the present system provides the following features: (1) variable length addresses with no known internal structure and processed with a number of memory accesses and a processing time proportional to the number of octets in the address field; (2) the size of the routing tables is directly proportional to the number of active addresses known to the router and within the practical limits of currently available microprocessing systems; (3) and the computational operations required to access the routing table for any address is linearly proportional to the length of the address field and these computations are reasonably performed by currently available microprocessor systems.